Chelm

City, capital of Chelm wojew�dztwo (province), eastern Poland. The city is located on the Uherka River, a tributary of the Bug River, 15 miles (24 km) west of the Ukrainian border. It received town rights in 1233, passed to Poland in 1377, and fell to Austria (1795) and then to Russia (1815). During World War II, 90,000 people died in two German prisoner-of-war camps in the town. The Polish republic was proclaimed in

Tivaouane

Town, northwestern Senegal. It is located about 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Dakar, the national capital. Senegal's principal mineral exports (aluminum and especially calcium phosphates) are quarried near Tivaouane. The town is linked by road and rail with the ports of Dakar and Saint-Louis and serves as the country's main centre for the Sufi-Muslim Tijaniyah sect. The Wolof people

Police Zone

Southern two-thirds of South West Africa (now Namibia) in which the German and later South African colonial administrations were able to establish effective European-style police control beginning in the early 20th century. The name of the area and its original boundary were adopted in 1919 by the South Africans from a 1911 German map of the territory on which the area was marked

Entomology

Branch of zoology dealing with the scientific study of insects. The Greek word entomon, meaning �notched,� refers to the segmented body plan of the insect. The zoological categories of taxonomy, morphology, physiology, and ecology are included in this field of study. Also included are the applied aspects of economic entomology, which encompasses the harmful and beneficial

Cruelty, Theatre Of

Project for an experimental theatre that was proposed by the French poet, actor, and theorist Antonin Artaud and that became a major influence on avant-garde 20th-century theatre. Artaud, influenced by Symbolism and Surrealism, along with Roger Vitrac and Robert Aron founded the Th��tre Alfred Jarry in 1926; they presented four programs before disbanding in 1929. Between 1931 and

R�o Gallegos

Founded in 1885, it was named for Blasco Gallegos, one of Ferdinand Magellan's pilots, who is credited with discovering the river. Prehistoric cave paintings

Wainganga River

River, tributary of the Godavari River, western India. It rises in the Mahadeo Hills in south-central Madhya Pradesh state and flows 360 miles (580 km) south to join the Wardha River (a headwater of the Godavari) northeast of Kagaznagar in Maharashtra state. Along the final 142 miles (229 km) of its course, the river forms the boundary between Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh states and is known as

Stuttgart

City, northern district seat of Arkansas county (the southern seat is De Witt), east-central Arkansas, U.S., about 50 miles (80 km) southeast of Little Rock. Settled in 1878 by Lutheran minister Adam Buerkle (born in Stuttgart, Germany) and his congregation, the city was incorporated in 1889, raised to a city of the second class in 1897, and to that of the first class in 1917. Stuttgart has long been an agricultural

Kearney

City, seat of Buffalo county, south-central Nebraska, U.S. It lies on the north (left) bank of the Platte River. The first settlers were Swedish immigrants who came there in 1865. The city was founded in 1871 at the junction of the Burlington and the Union Pacific railroads. It was named for nearby Fort Kearny, a U.S. Army post (1848 - 71) that had been established to protect travelers on the Oregon

Race, New World

Detailed descriptions of 17th- and 18th-century colonial history, including analyses of the English attitudes toward the Irish and the persistence of such attitudes in the New World and descriptions of the events leading to the enslavement of Africans, are discussed in Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (1975); Theodore Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 2 (1997); Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint (1998); Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black (1968); and Gary B. Nash, Red, White and Black: The Peoples of Early America, 3rd ed. (1992).

Han-tan

The area was already settled

Scimitar-babbler

Any of about 12 species of songbirds of the babbler family Timaliidae (order Passeriformes), which have long, curved bills used for uncovering insects in ground litter. Scimitar-babblers are 18 to 28 cm (7 to 11 inches) in length, with fairly long tails. Their plumage is mostly brown. They range through southern Asia to Australia and the Philippines. An example is the slaty-headed

Joensuu

City, capital of Pohjois-Karjalan l��ni (province), southeastern Finland, at the mouth of the Pielisjoki (river), southeast of Kuopio. Chartered in 1848, the city is a rail junction and centre for lumber shipment and has connections by steamship, highway, and air. Local industry includes plywood and lumber mills. Notable landmarks include the town hall (1914), designed by the 20th-century

Kaden-bandrowski, Juliusz

After working as a foreign correspondent and studying music in Brussels, Kaden-Bandrowski joined the military in 1914 in order to serve under J�zef Pilsudski, the

Costumbrismo

(from Spanish costumbre, �custom�), a trend in Spanish literature that emphasized the depiction of the everyday manners and customs of a particular social or provincial milieu. Although the origins of costumbrismo go back to the Golden Age of Spanish literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, it grew into a major force in the first half of the 19th century, first in verse and

Ashkenazi

(from Hebrew Ashkenaz, �Germany�), plural Ashkenazim, any of the Jews who lived in the Rhineland valley and in neighbouring France before their migration eastward to Slavic lands (e.g., Poland, Lithuania, Russia) after the Crusades (11th - 13th century). After the 17th-century persecutions in eastern Europe, large numbers of these Jews resettled in western Europe, where they assimilated,

La Calpren�de, Gaultier De Coste, Seigneur De

After studying at Toulouse, La Calpren�de entered the regiment of the guards and campaigned

Calabar

Formerly �Old Calabar� town and port, capital of Cross River State, southeastern Nigeria. It lies along the Calabar River, 5 miles (8 km) upstream from that river's entrance into the Cross River estuary. Settled in the early 17th century by the Efik branch of the Ibibio people, the town became a centre for trade between white traders on the coast and natives farther inland. Fish, cassava, bananas, palm

Turkestan

Kazakh �T�rkistan� city, southern Kazakhstan, in the Syr Darya plain. An ancient centre of the caravan trade, it was known as Shavgar and later as Yasi. It became a religious centre known as Khazret (Hazrat) because of the 12th-century Sufi (Muslim mystic) Ahmed Yesevi, whose 14th-century mausoleum is the city's chief monument; a notable example of Timurid architecture, the structure was made a World

Gippius, Zinaida Nikolayevna

During the

Basil I

Basil came of a peasant family that had settled in Macedonia, perhaps of Armenian origin. He was a handsome and physically powerful man who gained employment in influential official circles in Constantinople and was fortunate

Dominican

Byname �Black Friar�, member of �Order of Friars Preachers�, also called �Order of Preachers (O.P.)� one of the four great mendicant orders of the Roman Catholic church, was founded by St. Dominic in 1215. Dominic, a priest of the Spanish diocese of Osma, accompanied his bishop on a preaching mission among the Albigensian heretics of southern France, where he founded a nunnery at Prouille in 1206, partly for his converts, which was served by a community of preachers. From this developed

Devers, Jacob L.

At the outbreak of World War II (1940), Devers was commanding general of the 9th infantry division, becoming chief of armoured forces from 1941 to 1943. After serving as commanding general

Carpathian Mountains, Physiography

Generally speaking, the Carpathians have been divided into the Western and the Eastern Carpathians, the latter also called - probably more accurately - the Southeastern Carpathians. There are marked differences between these parts. The Western Carpathians show a clearly marked zoning in geologic structure and relief forms, and the highest elevations occur in

Malay

The Malay were once probably a people of coastal

Ames, Aldrich

The son of a CIA analyst, Ames attended the University of Chicago for two years before becoming a CIA trainee in 1962; he also attended George Washington

Welf Dynasty

The origin of the �Elder House� of Welf is a matter of controversy, since Welf in the Carolingian period seems

Colchicine

Drug used in the treatment of gout, a disease that is characterized by severe inflammation in one or more of the joints of the extremities. Colchicine is obtained from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale). The mechanism by which colchicine relieves the pain of gout, which is caused by solid deposits of uric acid in the joints, the kidneys, and other tissues, is unknown.